Income and Government Services: A Review of the Literature

Income and Government Services: A Review of the Literature In 1935 the Social Security Act was signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Since then, it has grown into one of the largest government services offered by the Federal government. In order to fund government services like Social Security, taxes are levied on various income levels. This taxation is met with opposing viewpoints from various political perspectives. In general, conservatives oppose progressive taxation policies and programs that redistribute wealth while liberals typically support them (Chamber 2013). However, many people, regardless of income level, receive benefits from these government services or programs (Mettler 2008). Furthermore, across all income levels, participation and the array of use of these government programs is notably higher than one might expect (Mettler 2008) So this raises the question; does an individual’s level of income affect their perception of the country’s need for government services? It is important to answer this question because currently, the United States is battling a large amount of debt which some believe can be limited through reductions in spending on government services. By researching a possible link between an individual’s income level and their perception of government services, a more sophisticated conversation can take place regarding the significance of those services. In an earlier piece research conducted by Jeron Van Der Wall, Peter Achterberg, and Dick Houtman (2007) across fifteen countries found that income is a prominent indicator of perception. The countries included in the study were; Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and the United States for the time period 1956 to 1990. They aim to try and provide an alternative explanation to Paul Nieuwbeerta’s (1996) research, which found that since the end of World War II voting for a specific political ideology based on one’s socioeconomic class, or class voting, was on the decline in Western civilization. To conduct their research, they rely on income as the primary indicator of class. They find that the patterns in class voting are driven by the cultural and educational differences across all incomes (Van Der Wall 2007). This indicates that class voting still exists and income l evel is still a relative factor to political ideology. Additionally Van Der Wall claims â€Å"class has been buried alive under the increasing weight of cultural voting, systematically misinterpreted as a decline in class voting† (Van Der Waal 417: 2007) when in fact class voting has become stronger since the pre-World War II era. (Van Der Wall 2007). However, because of the lack of accountability for variables like educational differences, working class, and just the evolution of political cultural in general, the findings raised by previous researchers are not entirely conclusive. By revealing these additional variables, a more thorough investigation can be conducted in regards to the relation between one’s income and their perception towards the necessity for government services. When discussing perception, personality traits must also be examined. Research conducted by Scott E. Seibert and Maria L. Kraimer (2001) examines how the Big Five personality traits are causally linked with extrinsic career success. They find that Extraverts, that are additionally psychologically more stable, are more likely to have extrinsic career success (Seibert 2001). Extraverts are outgoing and dominant individuals whose strive for success is driven by their personal ambition to come out on top. They have lower self-regard then introverts and are more willing to sacrifice better working conditions for the chance to rise above their peers. In regards to being agreeable and team players, extraverts are less likely to be agreeable and when working in organized conditions with others they are more likely to be more dominant and still try to stand out amongst their peers (Seibert 2001). Extraverts are rugged individualists, that is, they believe they are only ones who can determine how successful they are. This is a fundamental concept related to conservatism. And because extraverts are more likely to be successful and have higher incomes then introverts, Seibert and Kraimers’ (2007) findings reinforce the notion that individuals with higher levels of income are more conservative. Coinciding with personality, intelligence also affects the action and thought processes of people. Cognitive abilities are generally defined as the abilities one possesses to perform the simplest of tasks and the most difficult. They are the mechanisms of how we learn, remember, pay attention, and problem solve. They form together to create an individual’s intelligence quotient, which is generally linked with one’s overall level of intelligence. General mental ability (GMA), which was introduced by C. Spearman (1904), is also used to describe an individual’s level of intelligence. In their research, Frank Schmidt and John Hunter (2004) confirm that GMA sco res are strongly related to job performance and income level. Drawing from research conducted by Charles Murray(1998) that addition to examined GMA scores within families, â€Å"Murray found that the siblings with higher GMA scores received more education, entered more prestigious occupations, had higher income, and were employed more regularly† (Schmidt 2004). Using this evidence from Schmidt and Hunter’s research and correlating it with findings produced by Satoshi Kanazawa (2010) that show that more intelligent individuals are in fact more liberal, leads to the logical conclusion, assuming income is as related to intelligence as suggested, that higher income individuals are more likely to be liberal then conservative. Across the research provided, income is a relative factor in terms of political ideology. However, it is clear that a consensus on whether or not individuals with higher incomes are politically more liberal or conservative hasn’t been reached. Seibert and Kraimer’s (2001) research shows that the particular types of personalities that rise to the top in economic status are predominantly those of who, are more conservative in nature. What their research negates to account for is the level of intelligence possessed by those extraverts who are successful. Rather, they assume that they already have a high degree of intelligence because they possess the cognitive abilities to beat out their peers and earn higher incomes. Generally, this more than likely would be agreed upon. Furthering their point, intelligence as discussed in Schmidt and Hunter’s (2004) research, shows that intelligence is strongly linked to income level. However, the disparity in logic is introduced with Satoshi Kanazawa’s (2010) research which concludes that individuals, who possess a higher level of intelligence, are more liberal.   References Chambers, John R., Swan, Lawton K., and Heesacker, Martin. 2013. â€Å"Better Off Than We Know Distorted Perceptions of Incomes and Income Inequality in America† Jeroen van der Waal., Achterberg, Peter., and Houtman Dick. 2007. â€Å"Class Is Not Dead−−It HasBeen Buried Alive: Class Voting and Cultural Voting in Postwar Western Societies (1956−1990)†Ã‚  Politics Society  2007 35: 40. Kanazawa, Satoshi. 2010. â€Å"Why Liberals and Atheists Are More Intelligent†.  Social Psychology Quarterly,  Vol. 73, No. 1 (March 2010), pp. 33-57. Mettler, Suzanne., and Stonecash, Jeffrey M. 2008. â€Å"Government Program Usage and Political Voice†.  Social Science Quarterly: 89: 273–293. Murray, Charles. 1998.  Income Inequality and IQ.  Washington D.C: The AEI Press. Nieuwbeerta, P. (1996). â€Å"The Democratic Class Struggle in Postwar Societies: Class Voting in Twenty Countries, 1945-1990†.  Acta Sociologica  (Taylor Francis Ltd), 39(4), 345-383. Schmidt, Frank L., and Hunter, John. 2004. â€Å"General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance.  Social Psychology  2004, Vol. 86, No.1, 162-173. Spearman, C. (1904). â€Å"General Intelligence, Objectively Determined and Measured.† American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201–293.

Essay --

In both Things Fall Apart and Antigone, Okonkwo and Creon faced many similar difficulties along their paths to their predetermined fate. In white men trying to convert Okonkwo’s village to Christianity, ultimately leading to the suicide of Okonkwo. And in Antigone, Creon faced difficulties as well. King Creon, a dictator, creates his own laws without considering the desires of the people. Creon declares Polyneices not to be buried, punishes and kills Antigone for trying to give her brother a proper burial, lets no one mourn his death (SP4). Although Creon didn’t kill himself he has to live with his knowing that he brought this tragedy on himself. Both characters were challenged together in separate ways with both unfortunate outcomes. In both stories we know that Okonkwo and Creon rule by fear and they both believe that having power is the most important thing; it isn’t (SP1). That trait of fear of weakness may as well of been both Okonkwo and Creon’s trag ic flaw which caused the two their devastating downfall. Likewise, to make decisions, they use their own reasoning rather than consulting or listening to others. This is what compels us to believe why they had their downfall in each of the stories. They are similar, Okonkwo and Creon, in the way that they both are the two tragic heroes. They both are challenged in the way that their lives have been upset by something new. Antigone’s attempt at a heroic action, burying her brother when it was against Theban law to do so. The Theban law prohibited the burial of those that were not loyal to Thebes; however Antigone did so anyways (SP1a). She created chaos for Creon when his whole family died. Creon supposes that all his decisions benefit the whole community, whereas they really on... ...sively never end up in their favor anyways. In both Antigone and Things Fall Apart, they were challenged in ways where at first they believed their verdict of the situation was appropriate and equitable they come to realization at the end that they were very incorrect in thinking so. Okonkwo finds, at the conclusion of the book that everything he ever aimed to become was essentially inevitable. Mirthfully enough, he becomes just like his father, a disgrace to the clan. Creon as well realizes his fault at the end of the book, where he has his anagnorisis. He understands that making this law, and entombing Antigone lead to the death of all his loved ones. The two together rule by fear and don’t like showing weakness. They are oblivious to the desires of those around them, and don’t take into account that the view of the people and their families may be quite different.

Biography of J.P. Morgan

Hartford, Connecticut was the birthplace of J. P. Morgan. His parents, Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, hailed from Boston, Massachusetts. J. P. Morgan was educated partly at the English High School in Boston and finished his education at the University of Gottingen in Germany. After leaving the University he had entered his father's office in London. He was an extraordinary mathematician and had been strongly tempted to take up the career of professor of mathematics.But his father thought otherwise, and in the offices of George Peabody and Company young Pierpont got his first training in the technicalities of commercial banking and no doubt began the development of that unusual cepacity for accurate and quick decision which so strongly characterized his entire career. (Hovey, 2) He suffered with rheumatic fever in the spring of 1852. The illness took such a toll on him that he was left unable to walk. This was the start of a life long battle with diseases of different sort s that recurred throughout his lifetime.As part of a recovery effort, his father sent him to the Azores on a ship owned by Charles Dabney, named Io. It took him an year to fully recover and be able to attend school again. After graduating from Boston, a school named Bellerive at Vevey in Switzerland became his home. Once he gained command on the French language, the University of Gottingen became his new abode where he worked on his German. Within half an year, he developed a satisfactory base in that language. Done with his studies, he arrived in the English capital passing through Wiesbaden on the way..Personality Description John Pierpont Morgan was an example of moral excellence, singing the old hymns his mother taught him, fraternizing with bishops, forgiving his enemies, loving those who hated him, visiting sick friends and going sorrowfully to their funerals, bouncing his grandchildren on his knees, and molding his numerous corporate reorganizations for the good of the countr y. The man was magnificently endowed to play the role of financial imperator. There was the necessary bulk of bone and flesh.He was six feet tall, weighed two hundred pounds. Standing with feet apart, looking forward, he seemed poised to make a formidable advance. His head was large, craglike, well poised on his broad shoulders, his countenance rough-hewn. The upper lip, even as a boy, was heavy, and as he grew older, hidden behind his unruly mustache, it gave to his face an aspect of cruelty. His powerful jaws and rugged brow were drawn down in an imperious scowl. His bulbous nose accentuated the dark aspect of his visage.His large, wide-opened hazel eyes bent upon a visitor or suppliant with terrifying attentiveness and made him a formidable man in conference. (Hovey, 2-3) As a boy in high school his teacher said he was little short of a prodigy and could solve mentally problems in cubic root and numerous decimals. He could speak French and German because he had spent two years in a French school in Switzerland and two at the University of Gottingen. But he had no use for the classics. He could express himself in written English in a clear, direct, and vigorous style.Furthermore, even as a youth, he could put these excellent sentences down in a hand of great neatness and symmetry. He was superlatively choosy about his friends. Even as a boy in school he mixed with but few. But he was deeply devoted to them as well as to his family, his parents particularly. From the time he returned to America from school at Gottingen in 1857 to 1890, when his father died in Europe, he never let a ship leave for England without writing him a letter. Often he had to write these letters late at night after the rush of the day's work.His father preserved them in a series of books in his library. Twenty years after his father died, Morgan, looking through them, put them into the furnace. That was in 1911, a year of magnate hunting. He was growing old, and these letters were full of news, comments, opinions on the events and men of his time. Early Life John Pierpont was successively academy teacher, private tutor, lawyer and merchant. Urged to the church, he was ordained minister in 1819, accepting a call to become pastor of the Hollis Street Church, Boston.Pierpont was a vital force in the Unitarian Church and one of the most active organizers of the American Unitarian Association. But the man was more than a minister, he was a social rebel. Compact of scriptural austerity, righteous indignation and moral passion, John Pierpont's religion was warmed by humanitarian aspirations for social betterment. (Magill, 15) It was in 1857, the year of a great financial panic in the United States, that John Pierpont Morgan, a tall, taciturn young man of twenty, stepped on the stage of American business.At that time the house of George Peabody and Company was doing its American business through the New York firm of Duncan, Sherman and Company, and this firm was so serio usly crippled in the financial crisis that in order to save the situation George Peabody and Company had to appeal to the Bank of England for assistance. This experience impressed the London house with the vital importance of closer control of its American business, and it was decided to send young Pierpont Morgan to represent the firm in New York as cashier of Duncan, Sherman and Company.In the offices of Duncan, Sherman and Company, Pierpont Morgan met Charles H. Dabney, a partner in the firm and also the accountant. It was through association with Dabney that Morgan acquired his remarkable and accurate knowledge of bookkeeping and accounting. (Brandeis, 56) But the connection of the Peabody firm with Duncan, Sherman and Company was not destined to last very long. In 1864, the year in which George Peabody retired and was succeeded by Junius S. Morgan, Pierpont Morgan and Dabney formed a new firm under the name of Dabney, Morgan and Company, with offices in Exchange Place, New York .This new firm became the correspondents of J. S. Morgan and Company of London. A few years later, Duncan, Sherman and Company failed and faded from view. 1871 saw the establishment of Drexel, Morgan & Company. Based in New York, it was the result of Morgan joining hands with the Drexels of Philadelphia. By 1895, the company became to be known as J. P. Morgan & Company. It preserved its earlier relationships with Drexel & Company, Philadelphia in the USA. On the other side of the Atlantic, close relationships were also maintained with Morgan, Harjes & Company in Paris, and J. S. Morgan & Company in London.From 1910 onwards, the latter came to be known as Morgan, Grenfell & Company. (Magill, 17) The group turned into an influential banking concern by the turn of the century, brokering big money deals in the corporate world relating to reorganizations, mergers, acquisitions and takeovers. Although Morgan worked with a number of partners including George W. Perkins, he managed to keep managerial control with him over the course of his career. Morgan rose to prominenece through his constant involvement in large corporate and financial deals that seemed more like wars then mere business.He stripped Jay Gould and Jim Fisk of the Albany and Susquehanna Railroad in 1869, and then lobbied Washington DC to put an end to the financial assistanc granted to Jay Cooke by the government. This was folowed by the development of a kingdom of railroads across the USA. (Brandeis, 62) This was accomplished through, M & A activity and monetary assistance. Morgan then went on to raise huge funds on the other side of the Atlantic. This money was utilized in the restructuring of the rail roads so that higher productivity could be attained.Speculation was discouraged by Morgan as he purported a plan to transform the existing transport infrastructure ino a unique connected and inter linked mechanism. In 1885 he reorganized the New York, West Shore & Buffalo Railroad, leasing it to the N ew York Central. 1886 saw Morgan putting his efforts into the Philadelphia & Reading rail road followed by Chesapeake & Ohio in 1888. Following the the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887, Morgan hosted industry conferences in 1889 and 1890. (Hovey, 3) It served as a forum for railroad bosses to highlight the oppurtunities that the new legislation provided.Consensus was obtained for the charging of â€Å"public, reasonable, uniform and stable rates† to consumers. This was a unique initiative on the behalf of Morgan, the outfall of which were the M & A activities in the 20th century. About the time he went into business for himself he also fell in love with a young woman named Amelia Sturgis. And this romantic episode forms one of the most appealing incidents in the life of this grim man. It revealed in him depths of tenderness, which his later life in Wall Street concealed wholly from the public.She was perhaps the first or at least among the first young women he met when he arri ved from Europe. His attachment to her deepened slowly but it was probably begun in those first meetings at Newport in the very first week he spent in America. In the spring and summer of 1861 he was completely immersed in the personal problem created by Mimi Sturgis' condition. She had contracted tuberculosis. She was wasting away rapidly. There was very little that could be done then against the ravages of this dread enemy.Before the summer was over he made up his mind to marry Mimi, to give up his business and devote him completely to saving her life. Her parents tried to induce him to give up his chivalrous project. But he was not to be turned aside. And so in early October, in the Sturgis home in East Fourteenth Street, with only the family present, young Morgan carried the frail Mimi downstairs in his arms, held her at his side while the marriage ceremony was performed, and then tenderly lifted her again in his strong arms and bore her to the waiting carriage and on to the pie r.They went to London and then to Algiers with its warm sun and then, as she continued to fade, to Nice. There she died four months after the marriage. Two months later, in May, he brought her body home and laid it to rest at Fairfield. This tragedy crushed him, for a time seemed to have broken his spirit and watered down his ambition to utter frustration. But slowly he took up the broken threads, brought his old Cheshire school friend, Jim Goodwin, into partnership with him, and set off again upon his course. Later Years Following the elderly Morgan’s death in 1890, J.S. Morgan & Co, known as Morgan, Grenfell & Company from 1910 onwards came under the leadership of the son. In 1900, he began negotiations with Charles M. Schwab then head of Carnegie Co. Andrew Carnegie had a direct stake in the company. Morgan aimed to takeover a number of steel and iron businesses including Carnegie's. The final plan was to merge them into one, thus giving birth to the United States Steel Co rporation. The deal was struck for a staggering sum of $480 million. No lawyers and no written proof of the sale were the highlights of this deal.By 15h of January 1901, newspapers were filled with the news of the impending merger. Late 1901, saw the birth of U. S. Steel with a capitalization of $1. 4 billion. (Hovey, 5) Given its financial strength, it was the first company of its kind. The mission of the new coompany was to gain the advantages offered by economies of scale. These included cutting down transportation and resource costs, diversifying product lines and focusing on efficient delivery. Moreover, now the USA was in direct competition with the likes of Brit steel and and the German steel giants.(Forbes 15) The sheer size of the company was instrumental as it paved the way for a global market for steel and its products. The company came under heavy fire from industry observers who blamed the company’s management of trying to establish an industrial hegemony by vent uring into the construction of all products that embodied the use of steel as a major raw material. Morgan soon controlled 67 percent of the market share and Schwab predicted the company to hold three quarters of the industry under its belt. However, time proved otherwise as the market share detoriated, proving his prediction wrong.(Brandeis, 63) Morgan also ventured into the manufacturing and mining sectors. Morgan also had stakes in Banks, insurance companies, shipping lines and communications systems providers. His concern routed large amounts of capital that was instrumental in the development of America. (Magill, 16) Morgan was criticised for financing the federal government in the 1895 crisis through the use of gold. The critics disagreed with him on his proposed solution to the Panic of 1907, and blamed him for the poor economic state of New York, New Haven & Hartford RR. It was discovered that the J. P. Morgan & Co.coupled with the board of the First National and National Ci ty Bank had a resource pool of $22,245,000,000. This fact was made public in 1912 by a a subcommittee of the House Banking and Currency committee. This financial resource pool was equavivalent to the valu of real estate in the twenty-two states that lies west of the Mississippi River, according to Louis Brandies, former Judge of the Supreme Court. (Forbes 15) Nikola Tesla and his Wardenclyffe Tower were recipents of monetary support from Morgan worth $150,000. Following Tesla’s failure, Morgan pulled out of the venture in 1904.It is estimated that Morgan and his firm of partners controlled assets worth $1. 3 billion during the peak of their power in the dawning years of the 20th century. Works Cited Magill, Frank N. Great Lives from History. Michigan: Salem Press Inc. 1987. Pg 15-17. Hovey, Carl. The Life Story of J. Pierpont Morgan. New York: Sturgis & Walton Company. 1911. Pg 2,3,5. Brandeis, Louis D. Other People's Money: And how the Bankers Use it. Sunnyvale: Stokes. 1914 . Pg 56, 62, 63. Forbes Bertie C. Men who are Making the West. Emeryville: Forbes publishing Company. 1923. Pg 15.

Is The Criminal Justice Reform - 957 Words

Every prison is designed to punish for crimes committed, but not to torture a human being. The criminal justice reform in Africa focuses on alternative sentencing to improve conditions inside prisons and reduce recidivism. In 1996, a meeting was held in Kampala, Uganda to create a more effective penal system. The Deputy Chief of Justice of Uganda declared the official implementation of community service in 2001 . As a result of the Kampala declaration, the community service program was accepted as an alternative sentencing that intends to address issues of rehabilitation and overcrowded prisons. The community service program follows the international human rights norms and ensures the protection of prisoners. In Uganda, the conditions of prisons show the inhumane and cruel punishments that prisoners receive. Due to an increase in the amount of unpaid fines and crime rates, prison population had risen dramatically. This leads to other problems, including the financial expenses to maintain over populated prisons. The overcrowded prisons in Uganda force inmates to sleep on the floor, which is a way of living that affects their health. Moreover, prisons congestions result in poor physical health and unsanitary conditions. These prisons lack resources such as food, water and health care. Community service was recommended because it is the best technique to provide rehabilitation and reduce recidivism. Since all categories of prisoners are mixed, first time offenders learnShow MoreRelatedCriminal Justice Reform Essay1127 Words   |  5 Pagesstates; the colors symbolize valor, purity and justice; and the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies. But for some, these stripes also represent the 2.2 million people held in the American criminal justice system, moreover they represent the disproportionate rate that minorities in the U.S. are incarcerated. 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